1.1.2.WATER USE In 1996, total water withdrawal from groundwater (80 per cent) and surface water (20 per cent) was equal to 400 million m3, of which 138 million m3 (34.6 per cent) were for livestock including irrigated fodder production, 32 million m3 (7.9 per cent) for irrigation of other crops, 101 million m3 (25.2 per cent) for municipalities, 103 million m3 (25.8 per cent) for industry, and 26 million m3 (6.5 per cent) for other needs (Myagmarjav and Davaa, 1999). In 2005, total water withdrawal was estimated at about 511 million m3, of which about 227 million m3 (44 per cent) were for agriculture, 122 million m3 (24 per cent) for municipalities and 162 million m3 (32 per cent) for industries. About 82 per cent, or 419 million m3, was contributed by groundwater resources.

1.2.WATER QUALITY, ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN HEALTH Freshwater ecosystems of Mongolia are subject to increasing and multiplying threats, including overgrazing, dams and irrigation systems, growing urbanization, mining and gravel extraction, climate change and lack of water management policies and institutional frameworks (Batnasan, 2003). The Asia Foundation’s Securing Our Future (SOF) programme is a three-year initiative designed to promote the sustainable use of Mongolia’s natural resources that is focused on responsible mining and land-use practices. It is being jointly implemented by the Asia Foundation, the Netherlands, and a coalition of non-governmental, public and private sector partners. The overall purpose of the programme is to ensure that future mining activities in Mongolia generate long-term benefits for the people of Mongolia without compromising the nation’s ecological and social heritage. SOF involves seven programme areas that seek to ensure maximum community participation in decision-making processes, and in the long-term collective management and use of the country’s vast natural resources. One of the seven areas consists in the development of a Mongolian river water quality monitoring network, which enlists citizens and students to work in partnership with Mongolian and expatriate scientific experts in the collection and dissemination of data on the quality of river water across the nation, which will lead to the compilation of a complete ecological inventory of Mongolian waterways (Asia Foundation, 2010). Overuse of groundwater resources and climate change has led to a lowering of the groundwater table, which has consequently caused some springs, lakes and their associated ecosystems to dry up. Since the systematic observation period, from 1940 onwards, serious floods have been observed on Mongolian rivers, which caused severe property damage and loss of life. About 18 flood events were observed from 1996 to 1999 and resulted in 54 lives lost and a lot of property damage (Davaa et al, 2007). Out of 10,000 cases of diarrhoea every year in Mongolia, almost 70 per cent occur in the capital Ulaanbaatar. Dysentery and hepatitis are also common. These infections stem from a lack of access to safe water and sanitation infrastructure (UN, 2006a).