1.1.1.WATER RESOURCES Guyana is an Amerindian word reputed to mean “Land of the Water”. Numerous rivers flow into the Atlantic Ocean, generally in a northward direction. The Essequibo, the country's major river, runs from the Brazilian border in the south to a wide delta west of Georgetown. The rivers of eastern Guyana cut across the coastal zone, making east-west travel difficult, but they also provide limited water access to the interior. Waterfalls generally limit water transport to the lower reaches of each river. According to Janki, M. (2007), Guyana has four main rivers – the Berbice, Corentyne, Demerara and Essequibo – and a host of smaller rivers, creeks and streams. The Essequibo River drains over half the country and is a major river by international standards. The ground water system comprises three aquifers. The “upper” sand is the shallowest of the three aquifers and its depth varies from 30 to 60m, with thickness ranging from 15 to 120m. It is not used as a source of water because of its high iron content (>5 mg/l) and salinity (up to 1,200 mg/l). Most potable water is obtained from the two deep aquifers. The “A” sand is typically encountered between 200 and 300m below the surface with thickness ranging from 15 to 60m. Water from the “A” aquifer requires treatment for the removal of iron. The “B” sand is found at about 300 to 400m with thickness of between 350 and 800m. Water from this aquifer has very little iron, a high temperature and a trace of hydrogen sulphide which can be treated with aeration. Average annual rainfall in Guyana is about 2,300mm. It varies from about 1,800mm in the savannahs to over 4,300mm in parts of the rainforest. In the savannahs there is one rainy season from May to August. The rest of country has two distinct rainy seasons: November to February and May to August. However the actual rainfall in any month can vary significantly (Janki, 2007). Lakes and dams A small amount of the copious supplies of surface water which run off is trapped by a long low earth embankment to form large shallow dams locally known as “conservancies”. The conservancies are located in the “backland” or upper stream catchment areas and comprise waterretaining embankments and structures. These reservoirs are located on the Essequibo Coast Tapakuma Conservancy (Region 2), Boerasirie (West Demerara, in Region 3), East Demerara (Region 4) and the MMA (Region 5). The Tapakuma conservancy has been designed to provide irrigation to about 120km2, Boerasirie supports 360km2, East Demerara 345km2 and MMA 175km2. Boerasirie, Demerara and Abary conservancies are entirely covered by weeds. While in most years water supply is ensured throughout the year, if droughts occur during the secondary November-January wet season, these conservancies may have water shortages. Water shortages may also occur in the Tapakuma conservancy, which is partly supplied by pumping from the Pomeroon River. The gross theoretical hydropower potential of Guyana is 7,607GWh/year, of which 7,000 GWh/year was estimated to be technically feasible. Despite the country's large potential, there is only one hydropower plant in operation for 500MW at Moca Moca in Region 9. Water withdrawalWater withdrawal No official information has been found on water withdrawal, but World Resources have estimated values. Irrigation has a very large demand for water. The highest density of population, roughly 90 per cent, is within the coastal area and thus all residents of the coastal area depend wholly on ground water supply to meet their domestic needs. One exception is the Georgetown area, which utilizes about 30 per cent of surface water from the East-Demerara conservancy. Nationwide, water supply facilities include about 178 ground water wells and eight surface water sources.No official information has been found on water withdrawal, but World Resources have estimated values. Irrigation has a very large demand for water. The highest density of population, roughly 90 per cent, is within the coastal area and thus all residents of the coastal area depend wholly on ground water supply to meet their domestic needs. One exception is the Georgetown area, which utilizes about 30 per cent of surface water from the East-Demerara conservancy. Nationwide, water supply facilities include about 178 ground water wells and eight surface water sources. While access to potable water through house connections and public standpipes is quite widespread, the water and sanitation sector suffers from grave deficiencies due to the low quality of these services. There are three major water treatment facilities to produce drinking water, in Georgetown, New Amsterdam and Guymine.While access to potable water through house connections and public standpipes is quite widespread, the water and sanitation sector suffers from grave deficiencies due to the low quality of these services. There are three major water treatment facilities to produce drinking water, in Georgetown, New Amsterdam and Guymine. The amount of surface water resources in Guyana compares favourably with the level of consumption but because of the uneven distribution of rainfall over the year Guyana has some problems with droughts (and floods). In the southern part of the country, heavy rainfall during the rainy season from April to August results in widespread flooding. In February and March, however, before the rains start, some creeks can dry up. ground water is the main source of public water supply in the coastal zone. Lying beneath the coastal zone are three significant layers of sand known as the Upper Sands, A sands and B sands. The A and B sands are separated by clay. Under these sands lie the aquifers that supply water for domestic use and some water for industrial use. Along this part of the country, once a well is dug the water rises above ground level without pumping (Janki, 2007).The amount of surface water resources in Guyana compares favourably with the level of consumption but because of the uneven distribution of rainfall over the year Guyana Country Overview - Guyana has some problems with droughts (and floods). In the southern part of the country, heavy rainfall during the rainy season from April to August results in widespread flooding. In February and March, however, before the rains start, some creeks can dry up. ground water is the main source of public water supply in the coastal zone. Lying beneath the coastal zone are three significant layers of sand known as the Upper Sands, A sands and B sands. The A and B sands are separated by clay. Under these sands lie the aquifers that supply water for domestic use and some water for industrial use. Along this part of the country, once a well is dug the water rises above ground level without pumping (Janki, 2007). Ground water is also being increasingly used in Amerindian communities in the hinterland but the extent of ground water supplies is not known and it is unclear whether this use is sustainable (Janki, 2007).Ground water is also being increasingly used in Amerindian communities in the hinterland but the extent of ground water supplies is not known and it is unclear whether this use is sustainable (Janki, 2007). Water supplyWater supply Domestic usesDomestic uses Guyana has abundant surface and ground water supplies near all populated centres. Both surface and ground water resources are relied upon for water supply requirements. Heavy amounts of precipitation provide high amounts of surface runoff and ground water recharge (USACE, 1998).Guyana has abundant surface and ground water supplies near all populated centres. Both surface and ground water resources are relied upon for water supply requirements. Heavy amounts of precipitation provide high amounts of surface runoff and ground water recharge (USACE, 1998). Most of the domestic water supply comes from ground water resources, while most of the water supply for agriculture (sugarcane and rice) and industry comes from surface water (USACE, 1998).Most of the domestic water supply comes from ground water resources, while most of the water supply for agriculture (sugarcane and rice) and industry comes from surface water (USACE, 1998). Sewage systems in the urban areas are inadequate to nonexistent with minimal purification of water via filtration and chlorination, which occurs only in Georgetown when supplies are available and operational. The rest of the country uses septic tanks. Water distribution systems within Georgetown are poorly maintained and unreliable, forcing most residents to use individual cisterns. Canals throughout Georgetown are sources of water, but they also serve as sewers and are usually laden with agricultural and biological contamination and solid wastes (USACE, 1998).Sewage systems in the urban areas are inadequate to nonexistent with minimal purification of water via filtration and chlorination, which occurs only in Georgetown when supplies are available and operational. The rest of the country uses septic tanks. Water distribution systems within Georgetown are poorly maintained and unreliable, forcing most residents to use individual cisterns. Canals throughout Georgetown are sources of water, but they also serve as sewers and are usually laden with agricultural and biological contamination and solid wastes (USACE, 1998). About 90 per cent of the domestic water supply comes from ground water sources, and the remaining 10 per cent from surface water. The Georgetown Sewerage and Water Commission (GSWC) provides the water supply for the capital of Georgetown. This agency is responsible for the supply, treatment, and distribution of domestic and industrial water service within the city (USACE, 1998).About 90 per cent of the domestic water supply comes from ground water sources, and the remaining 10 per cent from surface water. The Georgetown Sewerage and Water Commission (GSWC) provides the water supply for the capital of Georgetown. This agency is responsible for the supply, treatment, and distribution of domestic and industrial water service within the city (USACE, 1998). Individual landowners use rooftop catchment systems with cisterns as a secondary water supply source. Georgetown has a demand of 20 million gallons per day with about 8 million being furnished from surface water and 12 million from ground water. Surface water is supplied by the East Demerara River Water Conservancy. Domestic water supply has third priority for use of the surface water supplied by the conservancy, so in periods of short supply, irrigation and transportation demands must be met first, and any excess water can then be used for domestic supply. This has led the GSWC to look to ground water for all future needs and as a replacement for surface water supplies (USACE, 1998).Individual landowners use rooftop catchment systems with cisterns as a secondary water supply source. Georgetown has a demand of 20 million gallons per day with about 8 million being furnished from surface water and 12 million from ground water. Surface water is supplied by the East Demerara River Water Conservancy. Domestic water supply has third priority for use of the surface water supplied by the conservancy, so in periods of short supply, irrigation and transportation demands must be met first, and any excess water can then be used for domestic supply. This has led the GSWC to look to ground water for all future needs and as a replacement for surface water supplies (USACE, 1998). Industrial Uses and NeedsIndustrial Uses and Needs Industrial water supply comes from both surface and ground water. Approximately 40 per cent of the ground water supply is for industrial uses and needs. In the future, more of the water supply for industry will come from ground water due to the declining supply of surface water. The predominant industrial use of water is the mining industry. Gold mining involves hydraulic dredging of the rivers, and uses river water to wash the dredged material to extract the gold (USACE, 1998).Industrial water supply comes from both surface and ground water. Approximately 40 per cent of the ground water supply is for industrial uses and needs. In the future, more of the water supply for industry will come from ground water due to the declining supply of surface water. The predominant industrial use of water is the mining industry. Gold mining involves hydraulic dredging of the rivers, and uses river water to wash the dredged material to extract the gold (USACE, 1998). Agricultural Uses and NeedsAgricultural Uses and Needs The main agricultural crops are sugarcane and rice, which require intensive irrigation. Along the coast, several conservancies supply water to agricultural lands using reservoirs, canals, and irrigation ditches. Each major township along the coast has one conservancy with its own unique entity and governing body. The East Demerara River Water Conservancy supplies the agricultural Country Overview - Guyana water needs for the Georgetown area. It is south of the city, and water is gravity-fed to the surrounding agricultural fields (USACE, 1998).The main agricultural crops are sugarcane and rice, which require intensive irrigation. Along the coast, several conservancies supply water to agricultural lands using reservoirs, canals, and irrigation ditches. Each major township along the coast has one conservancy with its own unique entity and governing body. The East Demerara River Water Conservancy supplies the agricultural water needs for the Georgetown area. It is south of the city, and water is gravity-fed to the surrounding agricultural fields (USACE, 1998). These drainage and irrigation systems, once adequate, have deteriorated because of lack of maintenance and can no longer sufficiently provide crop irrigation. The lack of storage capacity has hindered agricultural production, reduced the flood control capacity of the impoundments, and restricted the use of the impounded water for domestic consumption (USACE, 1998).These drainage and irrigation systems, once adequate, have deteriorated because of lack of maintenance and can no longer sufficiently provide crop irrigation. The lack of storage capacity has hindered agricultural production, reduced the flood control capacity of the impoundments, and restricted the use of the impounded water for domestic consumption (USACE, 1998). HydropowerHydropower There is no hydropower presently available, but significant potential exists. Development is limited because most of the sites are difficult to reach, and reliable estimates are lacking on the potential of many streams. Currently, several projects are in the planning, design, and construction phase under agreements with outside power companies. Completion of some of these projects could make the country self-sufficient in providing abundant low-cost power for development of industry, agriculture, and domestic needs (USACE, 1998).There is no hydropower presently available, but significant potential exists. Development is limited because most of the sites are difficult to reach, and reliable estimates are lacking on the potential of many streams. Currently, several projects are in the planning, design, and construction phase under agreements with outside power companies. Completion of some of these projects could make the country selfsufficient in providing abundant low-cost power for development of industry, agriculture, and domestic needs (USACE, 1998). Waterway TransportationWaterway Transportation Inland waterways are used for transportation by the logging industry. The Amerindians, the native Indian population, also use the rivers for local transportation. Approximately 6,000km of navigable waterways exist. The Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo Rivers are navigable by oceangoing vessels for 150km, 100km, and 80km respectively. Ports are in the towns of Bartica, Georgetown, Linden, New Amsterdam, and Parika (USACE, 1998).Inland waterways are used for transportation by the logging industry. The Amerindians, the native Indian population, also use the rivers for local transportation. Approximately 6,000km of navigable waterways exist. The Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo Rivers are navigable by oceangoing vessels for 150km, 100km, and 80km respectively. Ports are in the towns of Bartica, Georgetown, Linden, New Amsterdam, and Parika (USACE, 1998). The quality of surface water is a growing concern, with biological and chemical contamination most prevalent along the coast. Sewage systems within Georgetown are inadequate with disposal into the Atlantic Ocean. Periods during the wet and dry seasons are more susceptible for inducing contamination; open-ditch sewers and septic tanks may flood during the wet seasons, and during dry seasons, there may be insufficient flow to flush and dilute the contaminants (USACE, 1998).The quality of surface water is a growing concern, with biological and chemical contamination most prevalent along the coast. Sewage systems within Georgetown are inadequate with disposal into the Atlantic Ocean. Periods during the wet and dry seasons are more susceptible for inducing contamination; open-ditch sewers and septic tanks may flood during the wet seasons, and during dry seasons, there may be insufficient flow to flush and dilute the contaminants (USACE, 1998). Except for brackish or saline ground water near the Atlantic coast, ground water is suitable for most uses. Biological and chemical contamination of ground water is more common near populated areas and in the shallow aquifers (USACE, 1998).Except for brackish or saline ground water near the Atlantic coast, ground water is suitable for most uses. Biological and chemical contamination of ground water is more common near populated areas and in the shallow aquifers (USACE, 1998). Mining is an important industry in Guyana, but it is also a major source of surface and ground water contamination and degradation of rivers and streams. Dredging and other types of mining operations cause hydrocarbons to be released and increase sediment loading in rivers and streams. Improper disposal of sawmill wastes is another major concern, which raises biochemical oxygen demand levels (USACE, 1998).Mining is an important industry in Guyana, but it is also a major source of surface and ground water contamination and degradation of rivers and streams. Dredging and other types of mining operations cause hydrocarbons to be released and increase sediment loading in rivers and streams. Improper disposal of sawmill wastes is another major concern, which raises biochemical oxygen demand levels (USACE, 1998). 1. Surface Water Quality1. Surface Water Quality In Georgetown and in populated areas of the coastal lowlands, surface water contamination occurs from inadequate waste disposal and from chemicals used in the production of rice and sugarcane. Contamination of surface water, if not monitored properly, could develop into a major health hazard. Chemical contamination of surface water occurs primarily near manufacturing areas, especially along major rivers within mining districts. Commonly mined minerals are bauxite, gold, diamonds, and manganese. The contaminant of concern in bauxite production is caustic soda (sodium hydroxide). Contaminants of concern in gold production are cyanide, sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and mercury. Mercury is used in extracting gold in small mining operations, with arsenic generated as a by-product. The Essequibo, the Mazaruni, the Cuyuni, the Barima, and the Barama rivers and associated tributaries are probably polluted by these chemicals. Documented cases of mercury spills into interior streams from gold-mining operations have led to strict environmental protection practices. Cyanide is used in the processing of gold from hard rock. Cyanide contamination from gold production operations has occurred more than once in the Omai and Essequibo rivers. The Demerara River, the Upper Berbice, the Upper Canje, and associated tributaries may be chemically polluted from caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) used in the production of bauxite. The presence of chemicals to control aquatic weeds in the canals is also Country Overview - Guyana a serious problem in the coastal lowlands (USACE, 1998).In Georgetown and in populated areas of the coastal lowlands, surface water contamination occurs from inadequate waste disposal and from chemicals used in the production of rice and sugarcane. Contamination of surface water, if not monitored properly, could develop into a major health hazard. Chemical contamination of surface water occurs primarily near manufacturing areas, especially along major rivers within mining districts. Commonly mined minerals are bauxite, gold, diamonds, and manganese. The contaminant of concern in bauxite production is caustic soda (sodium hydroxide). Contaminants of concern in gold production are cyanide, sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and mercury. Mercury is used in extracting gold in small mining operations, with arsenic generated as a by-product. The Essequibo, the Mazaruni, the Cuyuni, the Barima, and the Barama rivers and associated tributaries are probably polluted by these chemicals. Documented cases of mercury spills into interior streams from gold-mining operations have led to strict environmental protection practices. Cyanide is used in the processing of gold from hard rock. Cyanide contamination from gold production operations has occurred more than once in the Omai and Essequibo rivers. The Demerara River, the Upper Berbice, the Upper Canje, and associated tributaries may be chemically polluted from caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) used in the production of bauxite. The presence of chemicals to control aquatic weeds in the canals is also a serious problem in the coastal lowlands (USACE, 1998). 2. Ground Water Quality2. Ground Water Quality Biological contamination of shallow aquifers by pathogens due to improper disposal of animal and human wastes is a common problem. Chemical contamination is primarily related to the use of fertilizers in the sugarcane and rice fields of the coastal lowlands. The Upper Sands aquifer, which is not normally used for water supply, is highly susceptible to biological and chemical contamination, particularly in the Georgetown area, and the water is generally brackish to saline. Overuse of aquifers in coastal areas may result in saltwater intrusion. During the dry seasons in the interior, shallow wells may temporarily go dry until sufficient aquifer recharge occurs (USACE, 1998).Biological contamination of shallow aquifers by pathogens due to improper disposal of animal and human wastes is a common problem. Chemical contamination is primarily related to the use of fertilizers in the sugarcane and rice fields of the coastal lowlands. The Upper Sands aquifer, which is not normally used for water supply, is highly susceptible to biological and chemical contamination, particularly in the Georgetown area, and the water is generally brackish to saline. Overuse of aquifers in coastal areas may result in saltwater intrusion. During the dry seasons in the interior, shallow wells may temporarily go dry until sufficient aquifer recharge occurs (USACE, 1998). According to Janki (2007), in all areas of Guyana where mining takes place, pollution is a threat to water supplies whether these are surface waters or ground waters. Pollutants include cyanide and mercury. In August 1995 the breach of a tailings pond at the Omai gold mine resulted in a massive spill of tailings containing cyanide into the Omai river and down to the Essequibo, Guyana’s largest river. Amerindians in the vicinity complained that their sources of water were polluted and they developed skin diseases. A national emergency was declared, an inquiry was held and there have been attempts at litigation, so far without success.According to Janki (2007), in all areas of Guyana where mining takes place, pollution is a threat to water supplies whether these are surface waters or ground waters. Pollutants include cyanide and mercury. In August 1995 the breach of a tailings pond at the Omai gold mine resulted in a massive spill of tailings containing cyanide into the Omai river and down to the Essequibo, Guyana’s largest river. Amerindians in the vicinity complained that their sources of water were polluted and they developed skin diseases. A national emergency was declared, an inquiry was held and there have been attempts at litigation, so far without success. Mercury is used in small-scale mining by individuals, known locally as porknockers, who travel through the interior searching for gold. Their use of mercury is difficult to regulate and monitor and there is still a lack of awareness of the dangers which mercury poses to health (Janki, 2007).Mercury is used in small-scale mining by individuals, known locally as porknockers, who travel through the interior searching for gold. Their use of mercury is difficult to regulate and monitor and there is still a lack of awareness of the dangers which mercury poses to health (Janki, 2007). Water supplies are also affected by missile dredging in which high powered hoses are used to break away river banks. These collapse into the rivers and result in high levels of turbidity. Trees and other vegetation destroyed in the process further clog the rivers (Janki, 2007).Water supplies are also affected by missile dredging in which high powered hoses are used to break away river banks. These collapse into the rivers and result in high levels of turbidity. Trees and other vegetation destroyed in the process further clog the rivers (Janki, 2007). As the gold reserves in the rivers become exhausted miners have been moving into the smaller creeks with the same adverse impacts. Dredges used on land also contribute to the turbidity and pollution of waterways (Janki, 2007).As the gold reserves in the rivers become exhausted miners have been moving into the smaller creeks with the same adverse impacts. Dredges used on land also contribute to the turbidity and pollution of waterways (Janki, 2007). The activities which pollute the waterways and threaten customary use are already illegal. The problem is one of enforcement and Amerindian communities have so far not used the legal system to stop these activities (Janki, 2007).The activities which pollute the waterways and threaten customary use are already illegal. The problem is one of enforcement and Amerindian communities have so far not used the legal system to stop these activities (Janki, 2007). The protection of shallow aquifers around villages is also becoming an issue. There is a potential risk from domestic effluent to nearby wells but there is still insufficient monitoring and insufficient data available on this (Janki, 2007).The protection of shallow aquifers around villages is also becoming an issue. There is a potential risk from domestic effluent to nearby wells but there is still insufficient monitoring and insufficient data available on this (Janki, 2007).

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