1.1.WATER RESOURCES 1.1.1.WATER RESOURCES The rivers in Armenia are tributaries of the main rivers of the southern Caucasus, namely the Araks and the Kura. About 76 per cent of the total territory is part of the Araks basin and 24 per cent of the Kura basin (UNDP/GEF, 2006). Total outflow is equal to the IRWR. The outflow to Georgia through the Debet river is estimated at about 0.89km3/year and the outflow to Azerbaijan through the Agstay river at about 0.35km3/year; both these rivers are located in the Kura basin. The total outflow to Azerbaijan through the Araks and its tributaries (Arpa, Vorotan, Vokhchi) is estimated at about 5.62km3/year. The Araks river forms the border between Turkey and Armenia and further downstream, between the Islamic Republic of Iran and Armenia, it flows into Azerbaijan, joining the Kura river about 150km before its mouth at the Caspian Sea. The border flow of the Akhuryan (with Turkey) is estimated at 1.03km3/year and the Araks at 0.79km3/year. Half of the border flow is accounted for in Armenia’s water balance, bringing the total actual renewable water resources to 7.769km3/year. The 14 sub-basins of the two main river basins (Kura and Araks) have been grouped into five basin management areas: Akhuryan, Northern, Sevan-Hrazdan, Ararat and Southern. About 9,500 rivers and streams with a total length of 23,000km flow in Armenia. Out of that number, 379 rivers are around 10-100 km long and seven, namely the Akhuryan, Debet, Vorotan, Hrazdan, Aghstev, Arpa and Metsamor-Kasakh, are longer than 100km. Armenian rivers are typically of a mountainous nature, with sharp seasonal variations, spring freshets and low water flow in summer. Armenia has more than 100 small lakes, some of which regularly dry out in the dry season. The Sevan and Arpi lakes are the most important in terms of size and economic importance. The Hrazdan and Akhuryan rivers originate from these two lakes, the larger of which is Lake Sevan, located in the centre of the country. It lies at 1,900m above sea level, which makes it a strategic source of energy and irrigation water. The level of the lake, originally with a surface area of about 1,414km2 and 58km3 of stored water, has fallen since the 1930s due to the lake’s increasing use for irrigation and domestic water supply. By 1972, its level had fallen by almost 19m and its surface area had been reduced to 1,250km2. At present, it covers an area of about 1,200km2, has a volume of approximately 34km3, and plays a central and important hydrological role in the country. It serves the densely populated Hrazdan river basin and the Ararat Valley where Yerevan, the capital, is situated. Through its regulated surface outflow into the Hrazdan river, the lake’s water provides a substantial amount of hydropower and irrigation to croplands in the Ararat Valley. The lake is also an important recreational area, natural habitat and cultural resource for the Armenian population. Since 1960, two inter-basin transfer schemes have been implemented to restore the ecology of the lake and its storage capacity as a strategic water reserve for multipurpose use. A 48km tunnel was built between 1963 to 1982 to divert some 250 million m3 of water annually from the Arpa river to Lake Sevan. A similar project, to divert 165 million m3 of water annually from the upper Vorotan river to the Arpa river through a 22km tunnel was completed in 2004. In the last few years, the lake’s level has risen by about 2.7m as a result of favourable meteorological conditions and improved management. Electricity generation at the Sevan-Hrazdan Cascade is currently tied to irrigation releases. During the last few years, irrigation releases have ranged from 120 to 150 million m3. The second most important lake is Lake Arpi. It is located in the western part of the Ashotsk depression at an altitude of 2,020 m above sea level. With the construction of a dam to solve irrigation problems, the lake became a reservoir. Most of the reservoirs were constructed during the Soviet period. In 2004, some 83 reservoirs were operating in Armenia and total capacity was estimated at 1,399 million m3, of which approximately 1,350 million m3 was stored in reservoirs with a capacity of over 5 million m3 each. Most of the water is used for irrigation. Some reservoirs are used for hydropower, recreation, fisheries and environmental protection. In 1995, about 145 million m3 was used for municipal and industrial purposes. The largest reservoir is on the Akhuryan river, which forms the border with Turkey. It has a storage capacity of 525 million m3, is shared with Turkey, and provides water for the irrigation of about 300km2 in Armenia. In contrast, many small off-channel reservoirs in the southwest of Aragats (Talish, Talin, Kakavadzor, Bazmaberd, Katnakhpyur), which accumulate spring tide waters, have a capacity of only 10,000-50,000 m3 (UNDP, 2006).

1.1.2.WATER USE Since the mid-1980s, there has been a decrease in total water withdrawal, mainly due to a decrease in agricultural and industrial water withdrawal. In fact, the reduction in water use has been accompanied by a remarkable improvement in surface water quality. In 2006, total water withdrawal for agricultural, municipal and industrial purposes was 2,827 million m3, of which about 66 per cent was for agricultural purposes, 30 per cent for municipal use and 4 per cent for industrial purposes. Agricultural water withdrawal mainly refers to irrigation of crops. Works for the watering of pastures, including providing water for cattle in the pasturing period, began in 1956. Sources of pasture watering are springs, mountain melted snow, and non-discharge water bodies. Surface water withdrawals represent 78 per cent of total water withdrawals. In most of Armenia’s territory, it is possible to use groundwater for drinking needs without any additional treatment. Indeed, about 95 per cent of the water used for drinking purposes comes from groundwater sources. Both surface water and underground springs are used for industrial water supply. Industrial water supply is provided by independently operating water supply Country Overview - Armenia systems as well as from the city drinking water supply network. For the past 10-15 years, the water requirements of industrial enterprises have significantly decreased due to reductions in the activity of many enterprises. It should be mentioned that 40 per cent of the industrial enterprises using water in Armenia are located in Yerevan. The largest water-using industrial enterprise is the Armenian Nuclear Power Plant, which uses about 35 million m3/year. There are 35 high- and middle-capacity hydropower plants in Armenia, nine of which are the plants at the Vorotan and Hrazdan hydropower cascades. Hydropower accounts for 20 per cent of electricity generation. The total installed hydropower generating capacity of Armenia is about 1,100MW, of which 1,050MW is operational. Almost 95 per cent of this capacity is installed along two important hydropower cascades: the Sevan-Hrazdan Cascade and the Vorotan Cascade. Electricity generation at the Sevan-Hrazdan Cascade is tied to irrigation releases from Lake Sevan on the basis of an annual water allocation plan. As a result of insufficient regulation of volumes, hydropower production is also subject to seasonal variations. While the industrial sector is not considered a major water user, an important problem for this sector is the implementation of industrial wastewater removal and treatment. Most industrial facilities were never equipped individually because they had been connected to the public sewer network during the Soviet era, and thus were able to access municipal wastewater treatment. Attention should therefore be paid to those industries that have resumed production and from which the wastewater generated is channelled to the municipal wastewater treatment system, where only the mechanical treatment step is currently being operated. Also, the industries that are not connected to a municipal sewerage system discharge their mostly untreated wastewater directly into streams or rivers. In general, old industries that resume production are the most polluting. The total quantity of wastewater produced in 2006 amounted to 363 million m3, of which 89 million m3 was treated

1.2.WATER QUALITY, ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN HEALTH Armenia’s major environmental problems are: soil pollution from toxic chemicals such as DDT; deforestation resulting from the energy crisis of the 1990s, when citizens scavenged for firewood; pollution of the Hrazdan (Razdan) and Aras rivers; the draining of Lake Sevan, a result of its use as a source for hydropower, which threatens drinking water supplies; and the resumption of operations at Metsamor nuclear power plant, in spite of its location in a seismically active zone. Most of the drinking water is provided by groundwater, which has high organoleptic properties and is very pure. Due to the poor state of the water supply networks, however, the risk of water contamination is high. Due to the lack of liquid and lime chlorine and the electric power deficit, water in most cases is supplied without chlorination. In many places, sewage and drinking water supply networks are connected, and at present the sewage system is in an emergency situation: 63 per cent of the network is more than 20 years old and 22 per cent requires immediate renewal. According to data provided by the Ministry of Health, between 1984 and 1991 no infection outbreak episodes related to drinking water quality were recorded in Armenia. However, since 1992 such episodes have been periodically registered. During the 1999-2002 period, 18 outbreak episodes relating to water pollution were recorded, with a total of 5,690 diseased persons. In 2003, 21,839 incidents were recorded, 5,839 of which (26.7 per cent) occurred in Yerevan. Solonetzic soils, which are characterized by a tough, impermeable hardpan that may vary from 5 to 30cm or more below the surface soils, are widespread. These soils are most exposed to the risk of irrigation-related salinization, mainly as a result of rising groundwater in the plains, where the majority of irrigated lands are located. In the Ararat plain, solonetzic soils cover about 10 per cent of the area. In 2006, the part of the irrigated land that was salinized was 204km2, of which 151km2 was weakly salinized, 24km2 medium salinized, and 29km2 strongly salinized. The malaria situation was stable in Armenia until 1994. In subsequent years, a downgrading of malaria prevention services and a weakening of the malaria surveillance system resulted in a steady increase in the number of malaria cases, which reached 1,156 in 1998. Over 98 per cent of these cases were detected in the Masis district of the Ararat valley, an area bordering Turkey. In recent years, owing to epidemic control interventions, the number of autochthonous malaria cases has continued to decrease, dropping to 8 in 2003. However, although numbers have been in decline, the situation must be monitored closely because of the existence of favourable conditions for malaria transmission. In 2003, Armenia redefined and adjusted its malaria control strategy, objectives and approaches, bearing in mind the results achieved to date, the extent of the problem, and potential threats in the country.

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