1.1.1.WATER RESOURCES There are no permanent rivers in Qatar. Direct and indirect recharge of groundwater from rainwater forms the main natural internal water resource. Two thirds of the land surface is made up of some 850 contiguous depressions, with interior drainage and with catchment areas varying from 0.25km2 to 45km2 and with a total aggregate area of 6.942km2. While direct recharge from rainfall might take place during very rare heavy storms, the major recharge mechanism is an indirect one through runoff from surrounding catchments and the pounding of water on the depression floor. Surface runoff typically represents between 16 and 20 per cent of rainfall. Of the amount reaching the depressions, 70 per cent infiltrates and 30 per cent evaporates. The average annual groundwater recharge from rainfall is estimated internally at 55.9 million m3/year. In addition there is an inflow of groundwater from Saudi Arabia estimated at 2.2 million m3/year, making the average total renewable groundwater resources 58.1 million m3/year for the period 1972-2005 (DAWR, Groundwater Unit, 2006). There are two main aquifers that are used to provide fresh groundwater. The uppermost is a chalky limestone referred to as the Rus aquifer. This overlies the important Umm er Rhaduma which is a major aquifer throughout the Gulf region. The salinity level of these two aquifers in northern and central Qatar varies from 500 to 3,000mg/L and increases towards the sea, reaching 10,000mg/l near the coasts. In the extreme southwestern region of Qatar, in the vicinity of Abu Samra, the Alat member of the Upper Dammam Formation creates an artesian aquifer whose recharge source is in Saudi Arabia. The aquifer is of limited extent, with an average thickness of 15m. The total depth of wells ranges from 22 to 80m below the ground surface. Salinity generally ranges from 4,000 to 6,000mg/L. The Aruma aquifer in southwest Qatar comprises approximately 130m of granular limestone belonging to the Aruma Formation. The drilling data of exploratory and production wells indicate the occurrence of relatively good-quality water (with a salinity level of about 4,000mg/L) at depths of 450-650m in southwest Qatar. The non-conventional sources of water in Qatar are desalinated sea water and treated sewage effluent. The quantity of municipal wastewater produced in the country was 55 million m3 in 2005 and the quantity treated (98 per cent tertiary treatment) was 53 million m3 (Public Works Authority, 2005). In 2002, the total installed gross desalination capacity (design capacity) in Qatar w

ed sea water produced was 180 million m3 (Water and Electricity Company, 2007). 1.1.2.WATER USE The Water Stress Index, released by risk analysis and mapping firm Maplecroft, pinpoints areas of water stress down to 10km2 worldwide by calculating the ratio of domestic, industrial and agricultural water consumption, against renewable supplies of water from precipitation, rivers and groundwater. It has been developed for companies to identify risks of water interruptions to supply chains, operations and investments. The index, which is accompanied by an interactive subnational map, rates 17 countries as ‘extreme risk’, with the Middle East and North African (MENA) nations of Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Libya, the disputed territory of Western Sahara, Yemen, Israel , Djibouti and Jordan topping the ranking (Maplecroft, 2011). In 2005, total water withdrawal was estimated at 444 million m3, of which 262 million m3 (or 59 per cent) was for agricultural purposes, 39 per cent for municipal purposes and 2 per cent for industrial use. In 1994, total water withdrawal was estimated at 292 million m3, of which 74 per cent was for agricultural purposes, 23 per cent for municipal use and 3 per cent for industrial use. Desalinated water provides 99 per cent of the drinking water. Of the total reused treated wastewater of 43 million m3 (an increase of more than 70 per cent since 1994), 26 percent was supplied to Doha to be used for landscape irrigation, the remaining part being conveyed via pipelines for irrigation of forage crops in two farms (DAWR, Irrigation and Drainage Unit, 2006; Water and Electricity Company, 2007; Public Works Authority, 2005). All water used for irrigation is pumped from wells and from the sewage treatment plants to the farms and Doha. There is no pricing system and water is given free to the farmers. The rate of groundwater depletion is estimated at 69 million m3/year (average for the period 1972- 2005). As an example for one year, total primary groundwater extraction in 2005 was estimated at 221 million m3. In the same year, the groundwater recharge from rainfall was estimated to be about 25 million m3, against a long-term annual average of almost 56 million m3 (see above). Return flow from irrigation was estimated at 55 million m3 and subsurface outflow at 18 million m3. This means that mining of groundwater was 159 million m3 in 2005 (by calculating total groundwater extraction plus subsurface outflow and subtracting groundwater recharge from rainfall and return flow from irrigation).

(Water Risk Filter)