1.1.1.WATER RESOURCES Four major hydrologic regions can be distinguished in Kazakhstan, depending on the final destination of water: the Arctic Ocean through the Ob River, the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea and internal lakes, depressions or deserts. The total IRSWR of Kazakhstan is thus estimated at 69.32km³/year, while the total incoming flow from neighbouring countries is estimated at 34.19km³/year. The outflow to the Russian Federation is estimated at 38.8km³/year, while the total outflow to the Aral and Caspian seas is estimated at 1.5 and 5km³/year respectively. The annual renewable groundwater resources of Kazakhstan are estimated at 35.87km³/year (1993), of which 29.77km³/year corresponds to the overlap with the surface water resources. The total ARWR can thus be estimated at 109.61km³/year. In 1993, the part of groundwater resources which could be extracted from existing pumping facilities was estimated at 6.1km³/year. About 1.3km³ of Caspian Sea water is desalinated by the Mangistau nuclear power plant (1993), mainly for industrial purposes and to supply water to the cities of Mangistau and Novi Uzen. In 1993, the return flow within Kazakhstan amounted to 8.62km³/year, including 6.79km³/year of agricultural drainage water and 1.83km³/year of domestic and industrial wastewater. The main part of the return flow, about 6.78km³/year, flows back to rivers. About 1.57km³/year is directed to natural depressions, and 0.27km³/year is directly re-used for irrigation. In the Syr Darya River basin, about 1.2km³/year of return flow flows back to rivers while 0.7km³/year is directed to natural depressions. The Caspian Sea is the largest lake in the world. Its level is presently subject to important variations. In the last decade, the Caspian Sea level has risen by about 2m, which has resulted in waterlogging in towns and villages, and the loss of agricultural land. On the other hand, the Aral Sea has been affected by a dramatic decrease in its level and volume, mainly due to irrigation development upstream. This has resulted in environmental problems, which have been tentatively addressed by the Central Asia Interstate Commission on Water Coordination. There are more than 17,000 natural lakes in Kazakhstan, with a total area of about 45,000km² and a total volume of water estimated at about 190km³. Salinity varies from 0.12g/litre in east Kazakhstan to 2.7g/litre in the central part of the country. More than 4,000 lakes are listed as saline. The largest lakes are Lake Balkhash, with an area of 18,000km² and a volume of 112km³; Lake Zaisan, with an area of about 5,500km²; and Lake Tengiz, with an area of 1,590km². Irrigation development in the last 20 years in the basin of the Ili River, which flows into Lake Balkhash, has led to ecological problems in the region, notably the drying up of small lakes. For the whole country, it is estimated that about 8,000 small lakes have dried up in the recent past due to overexploitation of water resources. The main natural depression is the Arnasay depression where Lake Aydarkul, with a capacity of 30km³, was created artificially with water released from the Chardara reservoir and with the return flow from the Hunger steppe irrigated land which is shared with Uzbekistan. More than 180 water reservoirs have been constructed in Kazakhstan, for a total capacity of 88.75km³. There are 19 large ones, with a capacity higher than 0.1km³ each, accounting for 95 per cent of the total capacity. Most of them are multipurpose: hydropower production, irrigation, and flood control. The largest reservoirs are the Bukhtarma reservoir on the Irtysh River, with a total capacity of 49km³; the Kapchagay reservoir on the Ili River in the Balkhash basin, with a total capacity of 28.1km³; and the Chardara reservoir on the Syr Darya River at the border with Uzbekistan with a total capacity of 5.7km³. The gross theoretical hydropower potential of Kazakhstan is estimated at 110,000GWh/year and the economically feasible potential at about 35,000GWh/year. The total installed capacity of the hydropower plants exceeds 3GW. Hydro-electricity represents 12 per cent of total electricity generation of the country, which meets only 85 per cent of the total electricity demand, the remainder being imported from neighbouring countries.

1.1.2.WATER USE In 1993, the total annual water withdrawal was estimated at 33.67km3, of which more than 80 per cent was for agricultural purposes. After a regular increase in water withdrawal till the mid-1980s, there has been a slight decrease during the last decade, mainly in the agricultural sector due to the adoption of water conservation methods, and in the industrial sector, due to the decline in the sector since independence. Groundwater is mainly used in the Irtysh River basin (0.6km³/year), in the Lake Balkhash basin (0.5km³/year) and in the Syr Darya River basin (0.5km³/year).

1.2.WATER QUALITY, ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN HEALTH Major environmental problems are radioactive or toxic chemical sites associated with former defence industries (test ranges scattered throughout the country pose health risks for humans and animals); industrial pollution is severe in some cities; because the two main rivers that flowed into the Aral Sea have been diverted for irrigation, it is drying up and leaving behind a harmful layer of chemical pesticides and natural salts, these substances are then picked up by the wind and blown into noxious dust storms; pollution in the Caspian Sea; soil pollution from overuse of agricultural chemicals and salination from poor infrastructure and wasteful irrigation practices. In 1993, about 2,420km³ (10.5 per cent) of the irrigated areas were classed as saline by Central Country Overview - Kazakhstan Asian standards (toxic ions exceed 0.5 per cent of total soil weight). These areas are mainly concentrated in the south of the country.

(Water Risk Filter)